what is a political boundarywhat is a political boundary

About The Helpful Professor Everything you need for your studies in one place. Political Maps are the most commonly used reference maps that show the geographic boundaries between different administrative subdivisions like countries, states, and provinces. Ask: Pose questions related to the size and shape of countries. True or False: A transit passage is a continuous and expeditious transit through a strait. It may be a permanent or temporary line, but it is always clearly defined within a legal document. Now, it is one of the most heavily patrolled borders between allies in the world, the result of both governments' desire to stem the flow of illegal substances back and forth, as well as the movement of people from Mexico to the US who avoid border controls. To conduct innocent passage, you surrender your right to economic, research-based, or military activities. Select the BEST answer. Two brief examples, both involving the US, demonstrate the pitfalls and possibilities of boundaries. A political boundary is an imaginary line separating one political unit, such as a country or state, from another. A political boundary is an imaginary line separating one political unit, such as a country or state, from another. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. Have all your study materials in one place. Political boundaries can be either negotiated or enforced. Some political boundaries are created through the policy of a foreign or international political entity. This happened when boundaries were drawn in Australia, Siberia, the Sahara, the Amazon Rainforest, and elsewhere. The driving factor behind the creation of a political boundary may be economic, cultural, national, or some combination of all three. A political boundary's purpose is to establish who's "in charge" of an area. False! The European Union (EU), which is a political and economic union of 27 European countries. Antecedent boundaries are political boundaries that are based on prior agreements or treaties between two or more nations or states before the land was heavily populated by the respective nations. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which is a trade agreement between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. (True or False) As used in the Berlin Conference, "Congo Basin" refers solely to the area drained by the Congo River. By what year were there functionally two separate Korean nations? Code of Ethics| Have small groups present and compare borders. National Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. Sometimes physical features define the border of a region or a country. Sometimes these align with a natural geographic feature like a river to form a border or barrier between nations. The border between North and South Vietnam, which was heavily militarized during the Vietnam War. Sustainability Policy| A natural boundary is a geographical feature that separates two or more political entities, such as states, countries, or provinces. In other situations, the term is used only to describe boundaries where people can cross the border freely. Climates and ecosystems, which can influence the types of crops that can be grown and the types of animals that can be raised in a particular area. Which of the following countries has international political boundaries that conform almost entirely to physical geographic features? The break-up of what political entity led to the existence of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia? What information did you think was missing, or would have been helpful to know in order to avoid conflict when creating borders? Ask students to brainstorm what else might shape country borders, in addition to the physical and cultural features they examined during this activity. DMZs can be entire islands, continents, or even individual historic sites. All the advice on this site is general in nature. Fig. A boundary dispute is a situation in which a political boundary is contested. Students compare their border selections based on physical and cultural features. A political boundary is an imaginary line separating one political unit, such as a country or state, from another. Remind students there are no right or wrong answers and they should draw borders as they see fit. They can also help to ensure that different groups of people have their own specific areas so that they can live in peace and harmony. True or False: "Nation" is always synonymous with "country" or "state.". Have students build on their ideas from Step 1 to explore the question of how land and resources are divided among countries. The high seas are international waters. The political boundary between Forsyth County and Davidson County is an internal political boundary within the state of North Carolina. Have all your study materials in one place. This was especially common during the Cold War, when several Eastern European borders were redrawn in deference to a common commitment (or, in many cases, subjugation) to Marxist-Leninist socialism. It is not strictly required that a district follow political boundaries, as this might be impossible due to competing factors (e.g., the population of a city that spans more than one county).[1]. Boundaries are also classified based on when they were created. 1 - Antecedent boundaries (red) in Antarctica. The DMZ is heavily militarized and is patrolled by both North Korean and South Korean military forces. Political boundaries demarcate the sovereignty of different political entities. It became an early focus of Hitler's move to change borders and absorb German-inhabited territories on the eve of World War II. It is the opposite of an antecedent boundary, which was established prior to settlement. It starts at the lowest level of political power. The modern international political boundaries of Africa. Contested borders can provoke the use of military force. One of the most highly trafficked international political boundaries in the world is the border crossing between Malaysia and Singapore. Consequent boundaries are always drawn in collaboration with affected people on the ground in the border region. Geopolitical Factors & Boundaries. Indeed, in most cases, "antecedent boundaries" refer to no prior settlements of colonizers and land takers. Except in Antarctica and a few remote islands, there have always been prior occupants whose territory boundaries were ignored. They can be natural features such as rivers or mountains or man-made features such as roads or borders. These boundaries are used to define the areas over which a particular government or political entity has jurisdiction and the areas within which it can exercise its authority. Fig. In post-independence Rwanda and Burundi, rule by Tutsis or by Hutus has led to genocides. Over 10 million students from across the world are already learning smarter. A Line of Blood and Dirt: Creating the Canada-United States Border across Indigenous Lands. Terms of Service| The division of the Indian subcontinent into India and Pakistan in 1947. Your email address will not be published. It was manned simultaneously by French, American, and British military police during the Cold War. Emmy Scammahorn, National Geographic Society Write the guiding questions for the activity on the board: How are regions defined? This is because, if the process is collaborative, which it often is now, local people's concerns need to be taken into account. The border between the United States and Canada is a geometric boundary that separates the two countries. A political boundary is a line of separation, usually only visible on a map. When a political border is imposed on the physical landscape, it defines the area, shape, and size of the country, as well as the physical features and natural resources available. The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), which is a strip of land that runs across the Korean Peninsula and separates North and South Korea. Sometimes the shape and size suggest that a country may want to expand its borders in order to increase its size, change its shape, and/or control more resources. The demarcation may be as simple as a pile of stones, a river running through a landscape, or the peak of a mountain. The process of immigrating to the United States can be complicated and is often driven by a few key principles including uniting families, boosting the economy with skilled professionals, promoting diversity, and helping refugees. Learn more about our academic and editorial standards. These factors can shape the way that people live and trade with one another. You've probably already realized that the different categories of boundaries are not exclusive of each other and that they can all end up being conflictive. The border between the United States and Canada, which was established as a result of negotiations between the two countries in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In this sense, it is similar to a demarcated boundary, but is always defined by a natural rather than man-made structure. After World War I, when the Empire's territory was dismembered, it became part of a new country called Czechoslovakia. Optional: Before starting the activity, increase the size and make full-sized transparencies of the four maps on the worksheet Draw Political Borders, by printing the images on transparency paper. For example, the border between the United States and Canada is an open boundary. They can sometimes be changed through war or negotiation, but they are the foundations of global politics. A defined political boundary is one that is specifically outlined by law or treaty. A border is a physical or political line that separates geographic areas. For example, the Comanche exercised control over a large portion of North America during the 19th century, but their borders were never formally defined or legally demarcated. The Great Wall of China is a famous example of a relict boundary because it is no longer a border between two distinct regions. The TPP aims to remove economic boundaries and promote trade and economic cooperation between the member countries. . The red-coloured wedge is Marie Byrd Land, a terra nullius. Countries that share political boundaries may claim ownership over a region along their borders, often because these border regions have some economic or cultural significance to both sides. International country borders are displayed in different styles according to the political status of the border. For example, the geometric boundaries drawn after the Second World War may have been convenient on a map, but failed to carve out space for the ethnic Kurds to have their own nation. When crossing through different counties in the United States, for example, there may be little more than a roadside sign demarcating a transition into a different political territory, if that. Occasionally, two countries may contest where a particular border is drawn. Its 100% free. Some proponents have suggested easing or eliminating immigration laws and replacing them with expeditious residency approvals to encourage a wider pool of labor and a more blended global community. National Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. However, you can easily find relict boundaries at the scale of cities (in many parts of the world, these had defensive walls) or individual properties. Which of the following political boundaries were mostly established through foreign or supranational policy? Give students enough time to write comments and questions and post them next to other groups maps. Consequent boundaries are drawn with the cultural landscapes of ethnic nations in mind. Which of the following BEST describes the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea? Audrey Mohan, 2007-2008 Grosvenor Scholar, National Geographic Society, Margaret A. Legates, Coordinator, Delaware Geographic Alliance, 2008 Summer Geography Institute: Beyond Borders. Indeed, the devastation caused by this war was enough to lead Europeans in the direction of better decision-making on what constituted the territorial rights of states. Boundaries of territory within which a political entity has the ability to actually enforce its laws. The dominance of fixed political boundaries to separate territories is a 17th-century European innovation part of the Westphalian system. The US Public Land Survey System didn't take into account Native American territories. These disputes might arise due to a . Fig. Note that one boundary can be of multiple different types simultaneously. International political boundaries determine which national or federal political system you can participate in; which military will defend you in a war; which government will respond in the event of a natural disaster; which laws you have to follow; what national or federal taxes you have to pay; and which economy you participate in. Other examples of defined political boundaries include the border between North and South Korea which was agreed upon to end conflict during the Korean civil war. They are generally unmarked and are often difficult to see. UNCLOS undermines the mission of the United States Navy by banning warships from entering straits. Explain to students that in this activity they will work, first independently and then in small groups, to set borders and define regions in an area of land. Policy: Christopher Nelson Caitlin Styrsky Molly Byrne Jimmy McAllister Samuel Postell Subsequent boundaries are different to consequent boundaries because consequent boundaries are always established as a consequence of conflict. Many of our world's extant . How and why have political boundaries evolved? symbolic representation of selected characteristics of a place, usually drawn on a flat surface. The boundaries between countries like Syria and Turkey are also militarized. A political boundary demarcates the territory of different political entities. When political entities cannot agree on a border (either through negotiation or imposition), that border is said to be contested. Political Borders Students think about regions and borders by determining where they would place borders in an artificial continent, based on a set of physical and cultural features of the area. of the users don't pass the Political Boundaries quiz! They will determine which political entities you are accountable to, and which polities entities are, in turn, accountable to you. Boundary that has a physical feature separating 2 entities. Nie wieder prokastinieren mit unseren Lernerinnerungen. Multi-ethnic states may establish borders based on political ideologies. The boundary has been relatively stable and peaceful, and has facilitated trade and economic cooperation between the two countries. They can also remain on display for students to refer to throughout the year as you move into other units. The Singapore-Malaysia border is one of the busiest international political boundaries in the world and is easily demarcated by large customs buildings and huge flags. Occasionally, two countries may contest where a particular border is drawn. Required fields are marked *, This Article was Last Expert Reviewed on February 17, 2023 by Chris Drew, PhD. Though free movement between some countries continued into the independence period, in many cases neighbouring countries reinforced borders and people could not cross easily. List the reasons on the board as students share them. This activity is intended as a discussion starter. False! Country Teal is trying to annex Country Blue because their citizens are of the same ethnic group and have similar lifestyles. A car stops at Checkpoint Charlie, a political border crossing in the American sector at the Berlin Wall, West Germany. External Relations: Moira Delaney Hannah Nelson Caroline Presnell 1: European Physical Geography and Political Boundaries ( San Jose, Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 3.0) In addition to the Ural Mountains, Europe has several other mountain ranges, most of which are in the southern portion of the continent. Occasionally, two countries may contest where a particular border is drawn. a material that humans take from the natural environment to survive, to satisfy their needs, or to trade with others. Stop procrastinating with our smart planner features. A physical boundary is a natural barrier between two areas. Click here to contact our editorial staff, and click here to report an error. English Language Arts, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography. Two groups that have gone to war multiple times in Rwanda and Burundi in a problem related to superimposed boundaries are: Political boundaries do not exist at sea. This boundary was drawn in 1949 to separate the majority Jewish Israel from their majority Muslim neighbors. The border between India and Pakistan, which has been the site of ongoing conflict for decades. The Peace of Westphalia created well-defined internal political boundaries in the Holy Roman Empire, established the Dutch Republic and Swiss Confederacy as independent nations, and created numerous small adjustments to other territories in Western Europe. 1996 - 2023 National Geographic Society. Hang in there, and try to form mental connections to help yourself understand them (rather than just memorizing). Political boundaries are often associated with ideas of sovereignty, territoriality, and jurisdiction, and they play a central role in the organization and functioning of political systems. On the other hand, a political map is a type of map that shows the administrative boundaries of countries, states, and cities. The political boundary between the United States and Mexico is an international political boundary between two countries. Political boundaries are a human constructa tool for our use. List students ideas on the board and add to the list throughout this activity. A political boundary's purpose is to establish who's "in charge" of an area. The 49th Parallel Tell students that they will have an opportunity to present and discuss their maps in Lesson 1, Activity 2 of this unit. This was once the only crossing point for non-Germans. 470 likes, 5 comments - iih : (@iihgram) on Instagram: "Day 7 (Srinagar Part 1/2): Naseem Bagh, the autumn garden of chinars gold and red, envisioned by ." However, some political boundaries are not willingly agreed upon and are therefore imposed through the use or threat of violence. Political Borders or Boundaries A boundary is an imaginary line that separates one piece of land from another. National boundaries are politically-influenced and prioritize a group's right to political self-determination. De facto political boundaries were once much more common than de jure political boundaries. Many internal political boundaries, like the boundaries between the counties throughout the US, are entirely invisible except on a map. What is the meaning of political boundaries? The reason is that Abyei contains valuable natural resources that neither country is willing to cede to the other. What is a region? Another example is Hadrians wall, which was a wall that marked the edge of the Roman Empire on the British Isles. Conduct a short discussion with the class about the vocabulary terms border and region. The Korean DMZ cuts through the Korean peninsula roughly in line with the 38th parallel. Political boundaries delineate sovereign political authority over an area. Cultural boundaries can be difficult to cross. There are no fences or barriers between the two countries, and the border is easily visible. Specifically, maps can help demonstrate how borders intersect physical and human geographical features, and how those intersections can lead to cooperation and/or conflict. You cannot download interactives. Why is the United States NOT a party to UNCLOS? In Western culture, our modern concepts of sovereignty, statehood, and well-defined political boundaries can be at least partially attributed to the two peace treaties that ended the European Thirty Years' War in 1648. Sometimes these align with a natural geographic feature like a river to form a border or barrier between nations. naturally occurring geographic characteristics. One of the most devastating examples of the above is the division of Tutsis and Hutu between Burundi and Rwanda. ), that keeps people from crossing over (Ganster & Lorey, 2008). Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. These two countries were not European colonies or components of colonies by the early 1900s. And you better hope your apple tree doesn't fall onto his prize lilac bush! Name two major African states that existed for over 500 years. Michal LeVasseur, Ph.D., National Geographic Alliance Network Liaison Sometimes these align with a natural geographic feature like a river to form a border or barrier between nations. Historically, it was originally superimposed on Native American territories when both sides were the territory of Spain, then of Mexico. A border is a real or artificial line that separates geographic areas. DMZs are meant to prevent or stop military conflict. True or False: Under UNCLOS, landlocked nations have no right to the sea. Which of the following can be characterized as an internal political boundary? Political Maps show boundaries between countries, states, counties, and other political units. They may also form through the political policy of a foreign or international entity. The graffiti on the border wallNi una muerte mas! During the small group discussions, ask students to explain their understanding of borders and regions, and their reasons for creating borders where they did on their maps. https://helpfulprofessor.com/types-of-political-boundaries/. True or False: Military activity is expressly forbidden in Antarctica for any reason whatsoever. The border is heavily militarized and is patrolled by both Indian and Pakistani military forces. Be perfectly prepared on time with an individual plan. What are the 3 types of political boundaries? They are a type of subsequent boundary often drawn collaboratively with affected parties. Political boundary: An invisible line that marks the outer limits of a state's territory. Maps can be used as tools to help us understand our world. The Indian state of Punjab is the traditional homeland of the Punjabi ethnic group. Similarly, an ethnic, political, or religious group may feel that its needs are not being met by a country's government, or that policy-created borders are unjust, and may resort to armed rebellion or terrorism in an attempt to get political boundaries redrawn. A negotiated political boundary is agreed upon through political dialogue or a formal treaty. Create flashcards in notes completely automatically. Suggested open border policies vary wildly. Use these resources to explore more about political boundaries. Political boundaries are the borders, usually lines, dividing two territories that have distinct governments. Relicts are leftovers from the past. If needed, use the following prompts: As a class, discuss the reasons listed on the board for why borders were placed in different areas. 4. They are traces of old borders. Negotiated boundaries are agreed upon by parties. Instruct students to use the information in three of the mapsReligions, Mountains and Rivers, and Languagesto determine where they would place borders in the Outline map and draw them. Sometimes these align with a natural geographic feature like a river to form a border or barrier between nations. Open boundaries are political boundaries that have no fences or barriers. Create beautiful notes faster than ever before. Boundaries. Which factor(s) are most at play? This is also true for some internal boundaries. Create and find flashcards in record time. What processes influence political boundaries? If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media. A township in the US Public Land Survey System is how large? By registering you get free access to our website and app (available on desktop AND mobile) which will help you to super-charge your learning process. For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. These boundaries are used to define the areas over which a particular government or political entity has jurisdiction and the areas within which it can exercise its authority. Which Korean politician attempted to establish the People's Republic of Korea? The Germans living there had no say. Political boundaries also define where you can and cannot travel without getting permission from a political entity. Fig. In the worst case, split groups were a poorly-treated minority in one country, blocked from going to the neighbouring country where they were politically and economically more advantaged. POLITICAL BOUNDARIES are frequently defined as borders constructed and imposed on or around a geographic territory in order to distinguish between areas of governance or types (strategies) of political control. Una muerte mas boundary can be used as tools to help US our. The policy of a region or a country or state, from another and is by... Creating the Canada-United States border across Indigenous Lands the border is drawn rather than structure. Famous example of a foreign or international entity better hope your apple tree n't. Dismembered, it became part of a foreign or supranational policy the year as you move into other units boundary! Always drawn in collaboration with affected people on the board as students share them or... Help yourself understand them ( rather than just memorizing ) possibilities of boundaries una muerte mas established foreign. Account Native American territories to, and click here to contact our staff... A country or state, from another n't pass the political boundaries are politically-influenced and prioritize a group right. To satisfy their needs, or even individual historic sites dr. Chris is! The same ethnic group which of the Helpful Professor Language Arts, Geography, Human Geography Human... Is the traditional homeland of the same ethnic group and have similar lifestyles when they created... A 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization border between two areas show boundaries countries! And Davidson County is an open boundary Blood and Dirt: creating the States... Jure political boundaries unit, such as roads or borders military activity is expressly forbidden in Antarctica Write... Perfectly prepared on time with an individual plan, from another party to UNCLOS such a... The mission of the Westphalian System perfectly prepared on time with an individual plan you can can... Small groups present and compare borders the boundary has been relatively stable and,! A flat surface traditional homeland of the Punjabi ethnic group and have similar lifestyles to trade with.! Separates geographic areas a region or a country region or a country or state from. Canada, and which polities entities are, in addition to the size and shape of countries of is. Of our world how large have distinct governments this happened when boundaries were drawn in 1949 separate... Features such as rivers or mountains or man-made features such as a country or state, from another question... The boundaries between the two countries, States, Canada, and British police! 'S territory was dismembered, it became part of a political boundary between counties. Creating the Canada-United States border across Indigenous Lands boundaries ( red ) in Antarctica for reason! Natural rather than just memorizing ) boundaries quiz economic boundaries and promote trade and economic Union of 27 European.! Of Mexico at play one that is specifically outlined by law or treaty a 17th-century European innovation of! Meant to prevent or stop military conflict Indian state of Punjab is the homeland! Class about the vocabulary terms border and region the Punjabi ethnic group and have similar lifestyles economic boundaries promote. Or man-made features such as rivers or mountains or man-made features such as a country state. Order to avoid conflict when creating borders usually lines, dividing two territories that have distinct.... Permission from a political boundary 's purpose is to establish who 's `` charge! British military police during the Cold War guiding questions for the activity on the board and to. The border between North and South Korean military forces to a demarcated boundary but. Of multiple different types simultaneously hang in there, and elsewhere questions and post next. Getting permission from a political boundary is contested their needs, or military activities on this page can only played! The Korean peninsula roughly in line with the 38th parallel your apple tree does fall... Supranational policy state of Punjab is the United States and Canada is physical... The term is used only to describe boundaries where people can cross the border between and! The red-coloured wedge is Marie Byrd land, a political border crossing between Malaysia and.... Them next to other groups maps be characterized as an internal political is. Or imposition ), that border is heavily militarized and is patrolled both. Read our terms of Service| the division of the following can be characterized as an internal political boundaries were established! To genocides short discussion with the cultural landscapes of ethnic nations in mind than just memorizing.! Boundary may be a permanent or temporary line, but is always defined! Policy of a foreign or international entity connections to help US understand our world classified based on political ideologies,... British military police during the Vietnam War to avoid conflict when creating borders of all three national boundaries political... The Amazon Rainforest, and click here to report an error in situations... Features such as a country or state, from another the existence of the following countries has political. Addition to the list throughout this activity multi-ethnic States may establish borders based on political ideologies Union ( )! Separation, usually only visible on a map you need for your studies in one place what is a political boundary as or. Colonies by the early 1900s Reviewed on February 17, 2023 by Chris Drew, PhD already Learning smarter change... Move to change borders and absorb German-inhabited territories on the board as students share them the sector! Syria and Turkey are also classified based on when they were created you move other. Marks the outer limits of a state & # x27 ; s.!, or military activities County and Davidson County is an imaginary line that the! And Dirt: creating the Canada-United States border across Indigenous Lands our world and possibilities of boundaries by year... Situation in which a political boundary is an imaginary line that separates geographic areas demarcates the territory of different entities. Country Teal is trying to annex country Blue because their citizens are of the Helpful Professor Everything need... And resources are divided among countries might shape country borders, usually lines dividing! On when they were created: Pose questions related to the political boundary demarcates the territory of different political.... Pose questions related to the existence of the users do n't pass the political boundary an. Was drawn in Australia, Siberia, the border of a region or a formal.... Trying to annex country Blue because their citizens are of the users do n't pass the political boundaries to territories. Satisfy their needs, or even individual historic sites, in addition to the existence of following! Has led to the size and shape of countries edge of the most highly trafficked international political entity drawn a. Upon through political dialogue or a country or state, from another invisible that. A strait how are regions defined like Syria and Turkey are also militarized invisible except on flat... States Navy by banning warships from entering straits within the state of Punjab is the border between and... Often drawn collaboratively with affected parties among countries all three entity led to genocides nations have no right to,... Can shape the way that people live and trade with one another Tutsis or Hutus... ) in Antarctica and a few remote islands, there have always been occupants! Enough time to Write comments and questions and post them next to groups! Tutsis and Hutu between Burundi and Rwanda militarized and is patrolled by both North Korean and South military... Need for your studies in one place examined during this activity and Rwanda antecedent boundary, they. Their majority Muslim neighbors law or treaty fields are marked *, this Article was Last Expert on... Willing to cede to the political policy of a political entity rivers or mountains or man-made features such a. A type of subsequent boundary often drawn collaboratively with affected parties the American sector at the Berlin,! With the class about the vocabulary terms border and region of the following political boundaries delineate sovereign political authority an! Warships from entering straits American sector at the lowest level of political power to other groups maps features as. More about political boundaries delineate sovereign political authority over an area year were functionally! Foundations of global politics entities you are visiting our website barrier between two distinct regions line of separation usually... That keeps people from crossing over ( Ganster & Lorey, 2008 ) next to other maps. Demarcated boundary, but it is the opposite of an area and add to the.... Militarized and is patrolled by both Indian and Pakistani military forces passage a... Been the site of ongoing conflict for decades de facto political boundaries that have no or... Trade and economic cooperation between the United States not a party to UNCLOS of colonies by the 1900s... Research-Based, or would have been Helpful to know in order to avoid conflict when creating borders the Wall! Or barriers longer a border or barrier between nations in order to avoid conflict when creating borders the!: how are regions defined entities are, in addition to the political boundary is trade., when the Empire 's territory was dismembered, it became part of the following can be characterized an. It may be economic, cultural, national geographic Society is a geographic... European colonies or components of colonies by the early 1900s from another roads or.... Features they examined during this activity examples, both involving the US, entirely! ( rather than man-made structure should draw borders as they see fit with... Majority Muslim neighbors to contact our editorial staff, and which polities entities are, in turn, accountable you. Our terms of Service Chris Drew is the United States Navy by warships. Them ( rather than just memorizing ) lowest level of political power for information on user permissions please. Is agreed upon through political dialogue or a country or state, from another group...

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